Search this site

For more than 250 years, Black writers, publishers, journalists and activists have shaped Britain's literary and media landscape. Yet the story of Black publishing is about more than individual achievement. It is the story of communities creating their own newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, bookshops and cultural institutions when mainstream platforms failed to provide space for their voices. From abolitionist pamphlets and pioneering autobiographies to digital media platforms and podcasts, this timeline traces the people, organisations and movements that transformed who gets to tell Britain's story. Foundations: The First Published Black Voices (1772–1900) 1772 – Britain's first published African autobiography James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw publishes A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince, helping establish the tradition of Black life writing in Britain. 1773 – Phillis Wheatley makes literary history Unable to secure an American publisher, Wheatley publishes Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral in London, becoming the first Black woman in the English-speaking world to publish a poetry collection. 1782 – Ignatius Sancho's letters are published Letters of the Late Ignatius Sancho, an African becomes one of the earliest major published works by a Black British writer and a remarkable record of Black life in Georgian Britain. 1787 – Ottobah Cugoano demands abolition His Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species becomes one of the first published calls for the immediate abolition of slavery. 1789 – Olaudah Equiano publishes a bestseller The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano becomes one of the most influential books of the British abolition movement. 1824 – Robert Wedderburn brings radical politics to print Drawing on his family's experience of enslavement, Wedderburn's writing injects a revolutionary anti-slavery voice into Britain's radical press. 1831 – Mary Prince tells her own story The History of Mary Prince becomes a landmark account of enslavement and one of the earliest published narratives by a Black woman in Britain. 1857 – Mary Seacole publishes her autobiography Wonderful Adventures of Mrs Seacole in Many Lands gives readers a vivid account of her life as a healer, entrepreneur and traveller and is widely regarded as the first autobiography by a Black woman published in Britain. 1892 – Britain's first known Black newspaper editor S. J. Celestine Edwards launches and edits Lux before later taking over Fraternity, helping build early Black and anti-racist publishing networks. Anti-Colonial Publishing Networks (1900s–1950s) 1911 – The Universal Races Congress meets in London Bringing together scholars, writers and activists from around the world, the congress helps establish London as an important centre for international anti-racist and anti-colonial debate. 1920s to 1940s – Black writers and activists build Britain's anti-colonial publishing networks Figures including C.L.R. James, George Padmore, Amy Ashwood Garvey and Ras Makonnen create newspapers, journals and political publications that connect Black communities across Britain, Africa and the Caribbean. Their work helps make London a major centre of Pan-African and anti-colonial thought. 1938 – C.L.R. James publishes The Black Jacobins Trinidadian writer and historian C.L.R. James publishes The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. By placing enslaved Africans and Black political leadership at the centre of the story, James challenges colonial interpretations of the Haitian Revolution and creates one of the most influential works of Black historical writing ever published. 1943 to 1958 – Una Marson creates a platform for Caribbean writers As producer of the BBC radio programme Caribbean Voices, Marson helps introduce writers including George Lamming, Samuel Selvon and Andrew Salkey to audiences across the English-speaking world. The Rise of the Black Press and Publishing (1950s–1980s) 1952 – Samuel Selvon launches a new era of Caribbean literature With the publication of A Brighter Sun, Selvon helps ignite the post-war boom in Caribbean writing published in Britain. 1953 – George Lamming publishes a Caribbean classic In the Castle of My Skin becomes one of the defining novels of the post-war Caribbean literary movement, exploring life in colonial Barbados. 1954 – Migration enters the literary imagination Lamming's The Emigrants offers one of the earliest major fictional explorations of Caribbean migration to Britain and the realities of displacement. 1956 – Samuel Selvon publishes The Lonely Londoners A landmark novel of Windrush-era Britain, The Lonely Londoners brings Caribbean voices and creolised English into the heart of British literature. 1957 – Ways of Sunlight captures two worlds Selvon's celebrated short-story collection explores everyday life in Trinidad and the experiences of Caribbean migrants navigating life in Britain. 1958 – Claudia Jones founds the West Indian Gazette Launched in Brixton, the newspaper becomes Britain's first major Black national newspaper and a powerful voice for Caribbean and African communities. 1959 – To Sir, With Love becomes a bestseller E.R. Braithwaite's semi-autobiographical novel introduces mainstream Britain to the experiences of a Black teacher in East London. 1960 – Andrew Salkey breaks new literary ground Escape to an Autumn Pavement explores migration, identity and queer desire, making it one of the most distinctive Black British novels of the post-war period. 1966 – The Caribbean Arts Movement is founded Created by Kamau Brathwaite, Andrew Salkey and John La Rose, the Caribbean Artists Movement (CAM) becomes the most influential Black arts organisation of its generation, nurturing writers, artists and intellectuals across Britain and the Caribbean. 1966 – New Beacon Books bookshop opens John La Rose and Sarah White establish New Beacon Books, Britain's first Black publishing house and specialist bookshop. 1967 – Margaret Busby makes publishing history By co-founding Allison & Busby, Busby becomes Britain's youngest publisher and the UK's first Black woman publisher. 1968 – Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications is founded Eric and Jessica Huntley launch a radical press that becomes a crucial platform for anti-racist, anti-colonial and Black British writing. 1969 – Race Today is launched Founded by the Institute of Race Relations, the publication begins as a policy journal documenting race relations in Britain. 1970 – The British Black Panthers create their own press The Black People's News Service gives Black communities an independent platform for political news, campaigning and grassroots activism. 1970 – Hansib Publications is established Founded by Arif Ali, Hansib grows into one of Britain's most important Black-owned publishing companies, serving Caribbean, African and Commonwealth communities. 1971 – Bernard Coard exposes racism in British education Published by New Beacon Books, How the West Indian Child is Made Educationally Sub-Normal in the British School System sparks national debate and helps fuel the Black Education Movement. 1971 – West Indian World expands the Black British press Founded by Aubrey Baynes and later acquired by Arif Ali, the newspaper becomes an influential voice for Britain's growing Caribbean community. 1972 – Buchi Emecheta publishes In the Ditch Her powerful account of welfare, housing and single motherhood in London becomes a foundational text of Black British literature. 1973 – Race Today becomes a leading voice of Black Britain Under Darcus Howe and the Race Today Collective, the magazine evolves into one of Britain's most influential Black-led political and cultural publications. 1974 – Buchi Emecheta publishes Second-Class Citizen The novel brings the experiences of Black migrant women and the realities of racism, sexism and survival into mainstream literary conversation. 1975 – Linton Kwesi Johnson helps define dub poetry Published by Bogle-L'Ouverture, Dread Beat an' Blood captures Black British resistance, police harassment and political activism through poetry. 1975-1977 – Karnak House emerges Beginning as Caribbean Cultural International before evolving into Karnak House, the collective becomes a major independent publisher of African and Black British literature, poetry and political thought. 1976 – Beryl Gilroy publishes Black Teacher Gilroy's groundbreaking memoir documents her experiences confronting racism in Britain's education system and becomes a landmark work of Black British non-fiction. 1970s – Independent Black publishing flourishes Alongside New Beacon and Bogle-L'Ouverture, presses such as Blackbird Books and Karia Press create new opportunities for Black writers overlooked by mainstream publishers. 1978 – The Black Ink Collective is established This independent Black publishing house was formed by young Black Britons in Brixton determined to share their work. They launched their first publication, an anthology of writing by local schoolchildren, and followed the next year by setting up the Black Writers' Workshop. 1979-1982 – A new generation of Black media emerges Neil Kenlock launches ROOT magazine, while Val McCalla founds The Voice, which quickly becomes Britain's leading Black weekly newspaper. 1980 – Benjamin Zephaniah self-publishes his first collection Unable to find support from mainstream publishers, Zephaniah releases Pen Rhythm, beginning a career that would make him one of Britain's most influential poets and a leading voice for Black British literature. 1981 – Caribbean Times joins the growing Black press Founded by Arif Ali and Hansib Publications, the paper strengthens Black British journalism and civil-rights reporting. 1982 – London hosts a landmark international book fair Founded by New Beacon Books, Bogle-L'Ouverture and Race Today, the International Book Fair of Radical Black and Third World Books becomes a major global meeting place for writers, publishers and activists. 1984 – Wasafiri launches Founded by Susheila Nasta, the magazine creates an influential literary space for Black British, South Asian and diasporic writers. 1985 – The Heart of the Race centres Black women's experiences Published by Virago, the award-winning book by Beverley Bryan, Stella Dadzie and Suzanne Scafe becomes a foundational text of Black British feminist history. 1987 – Black History Month arrives in the UK Led by Akyaaba Addai-Sebo in London, Black History Month creates new demand for Black British history, educational resources and publishing, helping introduce generations of readers to Black authors and ideas. 1987 – Tamarind Books is founded Verna Wilkins launches a pioneering children's publisher dedicated to ensuring Black and Asian children can see themselves reflected in books. 1988 – Bogle-L'Ouverture closes its doors The publisher enters voluntary liquidation, highlighting both the immense cultural value and financial vulnerability of Britain's independent Black publishing sector. Mainstream Success and Independent Growth (1990s–2010s) 1991 – Pride Magazine launches Created for Black British women, Pride transforms lifestyle, beauty and culture publishing, becoming one of the UK's most influential Black magazines. 1991 – Black Briton expands the Black press Founded by Joseph Harker, the newspaper adds a new voice to Britain's growing Black media landscape and broadens the reach of independent Black journalism. 1991 – Ben Okri wins the Booker Prize With The Famished Road, Ben Okri becomes the first Black writer to win the Booker Prize, marking a landmark moment for Black authors in British publishing. 1992 – The X Press changes the publishing game Dotun Adebayo and Steve Pope launch The X Press, whose publication of Victor Headley's Yardie proves there is a huge commercial market for Black British fiction. 1992 – Margaret Busby publishes Daughters of Africa Bringing together more than 200 writers of African descent, the anthology becomes one of the most influential collections of Black women's writing ever published. 1994 – Skank brings Black voices to comics Co-created by Bobby Joseph, the magazine is widely regarded as the UK's first Black satirical comic, creating new opportunities for Black and Asian creatives. 1994 – Andrea Levy begins chronicling Windrush Britain With her debut novel Every Light in the House Burnin', Levy captures the experiences of second-generation Caribbean Britons and the complexities of identity, belonging and family. 1996 – New Nation enters the newsstands The launch of New Nation demonstrates the growing demand for Black British news, commentary and cultural coverage at a national level. 1998 – Black filmmaking finds a publishing platform Menelik Shabazz launches Black FilmMaker Magazine (BFM), creating a dedicated space for Black cinema, filmmakers and screen culture. 1999 - The 'Brixton Bard' finds his voice The publication of Brixton Rock marked the literary debut of Alex Wheatle, one of Britain's most celebrated Black authors. Drawing on his experiences of care, Brixton and the 1981 uprising, Wheatle's writing brought Black British life to the centre of contemporary literature. His novels would go on to inspire readers, schools and future writers across the UK. 2000 – Zadie Smith publishes White Teeth Smith's bestselling debut becomes a cultural phenomenon and helps usher "multicultural Britain" into the mainstream literary conversation. 2004 – Andrea Levy publishes Small Island The award-winning novel becomes one of the defining literary portrayals of Windrush-era Britain and introduces the story of post-war migration to a mass audience. 2005 – Andrea Levy wins the Whitbread Book of the Year Award Small Island becomes the first book by a Black author to win the overall Whitbread Book of the Year award, helping bring the Windrush story into the mainstream of British literary culture. 2013 – Malorie Blackman becomes Children's Laureate Blackman makes history as the first Black writer appointed UK Children's Laureate, inspiring a new generation of readers and writers. The Digital Revolution and New Publishing Power (2014-Present) 2014 – Black Ballad launches Founded by Tobi Oredein and Bola Awoniyi, Black Ballad creates a dedicated digital publishing platform for Black British women and pioneers paid journalism centred on their experiences. 2014 – Jacaranda Books publishes its first title Founded by Valerie Brandes, Jacaranda Books grows into one of the UK's most influential independent publishers championing Black British, African and Caribbean voices. 2015 – gal-dem reimagines digital media Founded by Liv Little, the publication creates a powerful platform for women and non-binary people of colour, challenging traditional media structures and launching the careers of a new generation of journalists, writers and editors. 2015 – GUAP launches Founded by Jide Adetunji and Ibrahim Kamara, GUAP uses print, video and augmented reality to spotlight Black creativity, entrepreneurship and youth culture. 2016 - Black and British rewrites the national story With the publication of Black and British: A Forgotten History, David Olusoga brought centuries of overlooked Black British history to a mainstream audience. Drawing on extensive research, the book revealed the lives, contributions and experiences of Black people in Britain from Roman Britain onwards, becoming one of the most influential works of Black British history published in the 21st century. 2017 – A historic moment for British Vogue Edward Enninful becomes the magazine's first Black editor-in-chief, while Vanessa Kingori becomes its first Black publishing director. 2018 – Stormzy launches #Merky Books Partnering with Penguin Random House, Stormzy creates a publishing imprint dedicated to amplifying under-represented voices in Britain. 2018 – Black British podcasting enters the mainstream Shows including The Receipts Podcast, ShxtsNGigs, 90s Baby Show, Black Gals Livin' and NoShade Podcast build large audiences outside traditional broadcast media, helping establish a new era of independent digital storytelling. 2019 – Bernardine Evaristo wins the Booker Prize With Girl, Woman, Other, Evaristo becomes the first Black woman to win the Booker Prize, marking a watershed moment for Black British literature. 2020 – Jacaranda Books launches #TwentyIn2020 Publishing 20 books by 20 Black British writers in a single year, the initiative demonstrates the depth of Black literary talent and challenges assumptions about the publishing pipeline. 2020 – Publishing faces a reckoning on race and representation Following the global Black Lives Matter protests, publishers, literary organisations and booksellers across Britain make new commitments to improving representation among authors, editors, agents and decision-makers, prompting widespread debate about structural inequalities within the industry. 2020 – Black British authors top the bestseller charts Following renewed public conversations about race and racism, Reni Eddo-Lodge becomes the first Black British author to top the UK non-fiction charts, while Bernardine Evaristo reaches number one in fiction. 2020 – Candice Carty-Williams wins Book of the Year Her novel Queenie becomes the first book by a Black author to win the overall British Book Awards Book of the Year. 2020 – The Black Writers' Guild is formed More than 200 authors join forces to challenge structural inequality and under-representation across the UK publishing industry. 2020 – Cocoa Girl launches Created by Serlina Boyd, the magazine becomes the UK's first publication dedicated specifically to celebrating and empowering young Black girls. 2020 – Black Britain: Writing Back recovers lost voices Curated by Bernardine Evaristo, the publishing series reissues neglected and out-of-print works by Black writers, helping reshape the British literary canon. 2020 – Black British history moves onto social media Platforms including BLK BRIT and Black Things UK use digital storytelling to document, archive and celebrate Black British culture and achievement. 2021 – The Black British Book Festival launches Founded by Selina Brown, the festival rapidly grows into Europe's largest celebration of Black literature and publishing. 2022 – Audio archives preserve Black British history Projects such as Sounds of Black Britain and The History Hotline use podcasts and audio storytelling to make Black British history more accessible. 2023 – Bobby Joseph becomes UK Comics Laureate Joseph becomes the first person of colour appointed to the role, using the platform to champion literacy, representation and diversity in comics. 2023 – gal-dem publishes its final issue After eight influential years, gal-dem closes, leaving behind a significant legacy in British journalism and proving the impact of independent media built by and for communities traditionally excluded from mainstream publishing. 2025 – The Black British Book Festival partners with Pan Macmillan The landmark partnership creates new routes into publishing for unpublished writers, with a focus on discovering, mentoring and developing future Black literary talent. Conclusion This history shows that Black publishing in Britain has never been solely about books. It has been about ownership, representation, access and the power to shape cultural conversations. Across generations, Black writers and publishers have created new pathways into public life, challenged exclusion and preserved stories that might otherwise have been overlooked. From C.L.R. James reclaiming the history of the Haitian Revolution to digital platforms such as gal-dem creating space for new voices, Black publishing has continually expanded who gets to tell Britain's story. While barriers remain, the growth of independent publishers, festivals, podcasts and community-led media demonstrates that the future of Black British publishing continues to be shaped by people determined not only to tell their own stories, but to build and sustain the platforms that make those stories possible.

Black History Month UK may be well underway, but there are still plenty of opportunities to get involved with. From inspiring exhibitions and thought provoking talks to live performances and cultural celebrations, London has a wealth of events taking place throughout the rest of October. Explore our guide to the highlights you won't want to miss. Celebrate Hackney's Reggae Heritage at Roots, Routes and Rhythm: Echoes of All Nations (31st October) Hosted by Nzinga Dance, this free late-night celebration honours the legacy of Hackney's reggae scene and the legendary All Nations Club. Enjoy music from reggae pioneers, live performances, storytelling and a photographic exhibition exploring the borough's rich musical heritage. Find out more See The Story at the National Theatre (ends 24th October) BAFTA award-winning actor Letitia Wright stars in The Story, a gripping newsroom thriller by Tracey Scott Wilson that explores race, journalism and truth in contemporary Britain. Find out more Experience The Music is Black: A British Story at V&A East Explore 125 years of Black music-making in Britain through this immersive exhibition, celebrating the artists, genres and cultural movements that have shaped British music and society. Find out more Visit Ronald Moody: Sculpting Life at Orleans House Gallery This major exhibition celebrates the life and work of Jamaican-born sculptor Ronald Moody, showcasing his sculpture, poetry, writing and broadcasting work. Find out more Join the Black British Folk Takeover at Cecil Sharp House (17th October) Discover the often-overlooked contributions of the African diaspora to Britain's folk traditions through a vibrant programme of live music, storytelling, workshops and discussion. Find out more The Afronauts by Ryan Calais Cameron at The Royal Court (14th November to 19th December) What if Africa had joined the space race? The Afronauts, the latest play from acclaimed writer Ryan Calais Cameron, brings to life the remarkable true-inspired story of Zambia's ambitious 1960s space programme. Funny, moving and full of heart, this world premiere is a celebration of big dreams, bold ideas and the power of believing in the impossible. Find out more Laugh Along at Pioneers of Comedy at Hackney Empire (24th October) Celebrate the pioneers of Black British comedy at Hackney Empire, featuring performances from Richard Blackwood, Slim, Robbie Gee and some of the most exciting emerging talent on the comedy circuit. Find out more Put Your Knowledge to the Test at The Big Black History Pub Quiz at the Prince of Peckham pub (14th October) Gather your friends and head to Peckham for an evening celebrating Black history, culture and achievement. Expect friendly competition, great food and plenty of opportunities to learn something new. Find out more Experience Outernet London's Black History Month Programme Located by the crossroads of Oxford Street and Tottenham Court Road Throughout October, Outernet London is presenting a series of free immersive installations celebrating Black creativity and culture. Highlights include This Is Us by Nigerian-British photographer Caroline Chinakwe, a powerful exhibition celebrating identity, beauty, joy, resilience and belonging. Visitors can also experience digital works by Vince Fraser and a special installation marking the 30th anniversary of the MOBO Awards. Find out more See Sylvia: A Musical Revolution at The Royal Albert Hall (13th to 15th November) Revolution has a soundtrack. Blending hip-hop, funk and soul, the Olivier Award-winning musical Sylvia reimagines the story of suffragette Sylvia Pankhurst, bringing her fight for equality and social justice to life with electrifying energy. Powerful, uplifting and packed with unforgettable music, it's a fresh take on one of Britain's most influential activists. Find out more Don't Miss Out There's still plenty to see, do and discover across London this Black History Month. From exhibitions and theatre to music, comedy and community celebrations, these events shine a spotlight on Black creativity, culture and heritage. As always, check event websites before visiting for the latest timings and ticket information. So pick an event, get out and explore the very best of Black History Month in London.

Black History Month UK 2023 'Before Windrush' - exploring the lives and stories of Black Britons who were living in the UK before the arrival of Empire Windrush in 1948. Learie Constantine is the epitome of Black Excellence and a truly modern renaissance man. A gifted sportsperson, civil rights activist, and politician whose life was crammed to the brim with Black Firsts. He was born in the small village of Petit Valley in north-west Trinidad on 21 September 1901, and was the second child of the family and the eldest of three brothers. His father, Lebrun Constantine, was a plantation foreman on a cocoa estate and a famous cricketer who had represented Trinidad and Tobago in the first-class cricket and toured England twice with the West Indian team. All his family loved cricket. His Uncle Victor was also a first-class cricketer who played for both the national and West Indian teams, and a third family member, Constantine’s brother Elias, also played for the national cricket team. Constantine wrote that although his family was not wealthy, his childhood was happy. He spent a lot of time playing in the hills near his home or on the estates where his father and grandfather worked. He enjoyed cricket from an early age, and his family regularly practised together under the supervision of father Lebrun and maternal Uncle Victor Pascall. At school, Constantine showed prowess in several sports and was respected for his cricketing lineage. He played for the school cricket team, which he captained for two years. He developed a reputation as a brilliant all-rounder player but didn’t start playing competitive club cricket until 1920 because his father wanted him to have a professional career. After graduating from school, Constantine joined a firm of solicitors in the Trinidad and Tobago capital city of Port of Spain as a clerk. His father saw this as a possible route into the legal profession for his son. But as a member of the Black lower-middle class, it was unlikely that Constantine would progress far. Since few Black Trinidadians at the that time became solicitors because of the social restrictions they faced due to their ethnicity. The Caribbean (or West Indies as it was known at the time) at the turn of the 20th century was still defined by the racial politics of the plantation slave system. For the millions of people emancipated under the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act their freedom didn’t extend to their political and economic freedom. They were still seen and treated by the state as ‘dependents’ rather than citizens. Restricted from moving up society’s social ladder and forced to eke out a living for themselves. With some even being forced to become wage labourers for former owners. For Constantine, this meant that a possible route into the legal profession didn’t exist. He was destined to be a solicitor’s clerk because he was a member of the Black lower-middle class. Because at the time, few if any Black Trinidadians could become solicitors. Unhappy with the lack of opportunities opened to him because of his colour, Constantine decided to pursue a career in professional cricket and use it as a means of securing a contract with an English cricket team. A talented all-rounder he secured a place on the West Indies Cricket team. And in 1928 he was selected for the team’s tour of England and wowed the crowds with his bowling and batting skills. In one notable all-round innings at the Lord’s Cricket Ground against Middlesex, he took seven wickets and hit 103 runs in just one hour. In fact, he was the first West Indian to take a wicket in a test match and the first person to ever take five wickets in one inning. In his memoirs, Cricket in the Sun (1947), Constantine highlighted the problems of racism in cricket. At that time, West Indies teams were almost invariably captained by a white man and whites-only dances were held after matches with England. It was also widely believed that Lancashire Cricket Club would have offered Constantine a contract was it not for the racial prejudice of some leading members. Constantine’s star performance caught the eyes of several English cricket clubs and whilst still touring he was offered a contract with Nelson in the Lancashire League. He signed an initial three-year contract with Nelson worth £500 per season, plus performance bonuses and travelling expenses. His cricket appearances boosted attendances and gate receipts for all Nelson’s matches and was of great financial benefit to both the club and the League as a whole. In Constantine’s eight seasons at the club, Nelson never finished lower than second, won the league competition six times and the knockout cup twice. “When the Constantine family first came to Nelson in 1929, the rag-and-bone was the only other Black man living in the town. Upon their arrival, they received some welcoming letters from the local people alongside racist and abusive ones. Little kids from the school over the road used to peep in through the windows of Constantine’s house, trying to steal glimpses of their local cricket club’s new pro. They pointed at him in the street, asked him if he’d been working down a mine, whether he could wash it off with soap. While his wife Norma was started at whenever she went shopping.” Constantine rationalised that the main reason for the racism his family experienced was out of ignorance rather than spite. Most, but not all. As he found out when he met Jim Blanckenberg, the South African all-rounder he had replaced. Constantine met Blanckenberg in his first year of playing for Nelson. Thousands of locals had come to watch the talented West Indian play his inaugural match against the East Lancashire side. With everyone looking on, Constantine offered the South African his hand and Blanckenberg turned his back on him. A justifiably furious Constantine then proceeded to take out the entire East Lancashire team in a flurry of deadly spin bowls with Nelson winning the match by four wickets. It was reported that after the game, Blanckenberg stormed into the Nelson’s changing room to complain about the bruises he’d received during the match. Constantine never apologised. By the end of their first summer in Lancashire, Learie was ready to return to the Caribbean, but it was his wife Norma who persuaded him to stay and make a home there. They settled in a prosperous and middle-class area of Nelson, No. 3 Meredith Street, and stayed there for over 20 years, making life-long friends, and becoming part of the community. Constantine went on to play with distinction between 1929 and 1938, while continuing as a member of the West Indies in tours of England and Australia. Sometime in 1933 Constantine published his first of many books, ‘Cricket and I’, with the help of his lodger, the prolific writer and political theorist, fellow Trinidad and Tobago (T&T) national C.L.R. James. James was at the forefront of a growing Caribbean nationalist movement, though Constantine had until then consciously avoided politics. Through James' influence, Constantine realised that his position gave him opportunities to further the cause of racial equality and independence for Trinidad and Tobago. He joined the League of Coloured Peoples, an organisation aiming to achieve racial equality for Black people in Britain. He helped James to get a job with the Manchester Guardian, and in return, James helped Constantine to write his first book. In later years, commentators identified Constantine's book as an important step in Caribbean nationalism, and an encouragement to future authors. Constantine demonstrating his bowling technique/National Library of Australia For the 1938 cricket season, Constantine played for Rochdale in the Central Lancashire Cricket League, although he continued to live in Nelson. He didn’t enjoy the experience despite performing successfully. The pitches were different from his old league and some of the players were resentful of his earnings. Constantine was paid £812 for a season considerably more than other cricket players at the time. But Constantine was the box office draw who was pulling in the crowds and generating thousands in ticket sales. There was also an incident of racial abuse which Constantine believed the Central Lancashire League committee effectively covered up. This season ended Constantine’s career in the Lancashire Leagues, although during the war he returned to play for Nelson as an amateur. Learie didn’t give up his dream of becoming a solicitor and started studying law by correspondence course while still a professional cricketer. In 1939, he was taken into the family solicitor’s office of Alec Birtwell, a fellow Nelson cricketer. Had the war not intervened he would have become articled to this firm and started his new career in the law. When war broke out in 1939, Constantine choose to stay in Nelson rather than take his family back to the safety of Trinidad. He said: ‘I couldn’t run away. I had got a standard of life in England that I could never have achieved in my country. I had made a lot of friends. England to me stood for something and now that war had started, I would have felt like a little dog to have run away from England.’ At almost 40, he was too old for active service and initially worked as an Air Raid Precautions equipment officer, and a billeting officer for incoming evacuees. Although the war had affectively ended his career in top-class cricket, he continued to play league cricket and appeared in many wartime charity games. In 1941, he was offered the role of Welfare Officer with the Ministry of Labour and National Service, in conjunction with the Colonial Office. He was responsible for looking after the interests of West African seamen in Liverpool, and munitions workers and trainees from the West Indies in the north-west. He was initially based in Liverpool’s famous royal Liver Building and was helped by an assistant, Sam Morris, who was active in the League of Coloured Peoples. During Second World War large numbers of servicemen and women from across the Commonwealth were recruited to help Britain’s war effort. They included RAF pilots from the Caribbean, lumberjacks from Honduras working in terrible, bleak conditions in Scottish forests, and Jamaican technicians who worked in munition factories in and around Merseyside. These new arrivals needed support. Learie Constantine’s long experience of living in England, and his understanding of the prejudices and difficulties they would face, made him the ideal person to help them. Constantine worked closely with trade unions in an attempt to ease the fears and suspicions of white workers. He used his influence with the Ministry of Labour to pressurise companies who refused to employ West Indians, but generally preferred negotiation to confrontation, an approach that was often successful. In a newspaper interview with the Liverpool Echo in August 1954, he recalled how he had to resolve a housing issue between Black and white workers in a gunpowder factory. All the workers at the factory, including the Black workers, were put up in hostels. But some of the white workers ‘objected’ to the Black workers being housed. So, Constantine actually stayed in a hostel to promote understanding between the workers. The ruse worked and the Black workers were ‘permitted’ to stay in the hostels. He also went on to remember a racist incident in which he was accosted in a dance hall of one of the hostels by ‘a man in an American Air Force officers’ uniform. The American officer, who had ‘aggressively shouldered the whole length of the hall’ towards Constantine, yelled at him to ‘get out,’ shouting that ‘where we are’ they did not allow Black people to mix with white. However, it was ‘the aggressor who had to get out.’ Sadly, Constantine was to experience another American fuelled racial incident again in August 1943 when he was booked to play a charity cricket match at Lords. Ahead of the game he booked a four-night stay at Imperial Hotel, London for him and his family. He was reassured in advance that his colour wouldn’t be an issue. Upon arrival, he was denied accommodation for the full stay because management insisted his presence would offend the white American servicemen who were staying in the hotel. The case Constantine v Imperial London Hotels ruled in favour of Constantine and set a precedent on challenging racial discrimination in the court and providing Black people with the legal recourse against some forms of racism. Ironically, the British government had asked Constantine to produce radio broadcasts to West Indies, reporting on the involvement of West Indians in the war effort. As a result, he was often asked to speak on BBC radio about his life in England. His radio performances met with critical acclaim, and he became a frequent guest on radio panel shows; he also took part in a film documentary West Indies Calling in 1943 with Una Marson and Ulric Cross. His wartime experiences caused him to increase his involvement in the League of Coloured Peoples, sometimes referring cases to them. He particularly took up the cause of the children of white women and Black overseas servicemen; these children were often abandoned by their parents. However, plans to create a children's home for them came to nothing, leaving Constantine frustrated. He remained in his post until the summer of 1946, latterly concerned with the repatriation of the West Indian workers at the end of the war. He was awarded an MBE in 1947 for his ‘welfare work’ during wartime. Blue plaque, 101 Lexham Gardens, Kensington, London, his home from 1949 to 1954/Edwarrdx After the second World War, Constantine moved his family to London where he worked as a journalist and broadcaster for the BBC whilst he studied law. To supplement his income and finance his studies, he took a few coaching jobs and wrote several books on cricket including Cricket in the Sun (1947) which covered his career and the racism he had encountered. He qualified as a barrister and was called to the bar by the Middle Temple in 1954. Having turned down an offer in 1947 to return to his old employer, Trinidad Leaseholds, in 1954 Constantine agreed to join the same company as an assistant legal advisor. Before leaving England, he published Colour Bar, a book that criticised not only racial inequality, but also British colonialism and empire. Although not viewed as radical by black audiences, it was aimed at white British readers. The British press gave it mixed reviews and criticised him for unfairness in parts of the book; other critics accused him of communist sympathies. Constantine returned to a country that was clamouring for independence from Britain. Feeling isolated in his job from his largely white colleagues. He gravitated towards the political movement for independence and accepted Eric Williams, leader of the newly founded People’s National Movement (PNM), invitation to become a party chairman and member of executive committee. In 1956, Constantine stood for election and narrowly won the constituency of Tunapuna. The PNM formed a government and Constantine became the Minister of Communications, Works and Utilities. He was a popular and successful politician and played a significant role in securing the country’s independence in 1962. After deciding not to stand for re-election in 1961 he accepted the role of Trinidad and Tobago’s first High Commissioner in London. Constantine returned to England with his wife in 1962. He was knighted the same year becoming Sir Learie Constantine and was given the freedom of the town of Nelson. However, his tenure as High Commissioner ended when he got involved in the Bristol Bus Boycott in 1963. Politicians in both Trinidad and Tobago and Britain felt a senior diplomat shouldn’t be so closely involved in British domestic affairs, particularly as he acted without consulting his government. Williams effectively withdrew his support from Constantine, who decided not to continue as High Commissioner when his term expired in February 1964. For the remainder of his life, Constantine lived in London. He returned to legal practice and was elected an Honorary Bencher of the Middle Temple in 1963. He also resumed work in journalism: he wrote and broadcast on cricket, race and the Commonwealth, and produced two more books: a coaching book The Young Cricketers Companion (1964), and The Changing Face of Cricket (1966) which included his thoughts on modern cricket. (c) National Library of Australia By the 1960s, Learie was firmly part of the UK establishment. He was founding member of the Sports Council, sat on the first Race Relations Board constituted under the 1965 Act, was appointed to the BBC's General Advisory Committee in 1966 and became a BBC Governor two years later, and in 1967 was elected Lord Rector of St Andrew’s University. However, he remained a vocal campaigner of racial equality and justice. Whilst on the Race Relations Board, he spoke out against the Commonwealth Immigrants Act, a stance that led to an offer from the Liberal Party, which he declined, to stand as parliamentary candidate for Nelson. Later, he was involved in an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate the release, after a military coup, of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, the overthrown Prime Minister of Nigeria. In 1969, Learie Constantine became the UK’s first Black peer taking the title ‘Baron Constantine, of Maraval in Trinidad and of Nelson in the County Palatine of Lancaster’. Cementing his place as part of the UK establishment. His life peerage attracted widespread media attention, with Constantine stating: "I think it must have been for what I have endeavoured to do to make it possible for people of different colour to know each other better and live well together." In his last years, Constantine was criticised for becoming part of the Establishment. The new generation of Caribbean immigrants believed he was out of touch and the more radical Black activists disapproved of his conciliatory approach to racist incidents. Even the Private Eye mocked him. Reflecting on Learie Constantine’s impact on British society depends on where you stand; on the cricket field, in a broadcasting studio or in the House of Lords, where Learie was able to sit after becoming a life peer in 1969. Learie Constantine is a towering figure in British Black history. A man of many accolades and achievements. But perhaps CLR James described him best when he wrote of him: "Many doors in England were open to him. That doors were closed to other West Indians seemed more important to him.” Baron Constantine died aged 69 at his home in Hampstead, London on July 1, 1971. He was honoured on both sides of the Atlantic with a state funeral in Trinidad and a memorial service in Westminster Abbey. He was posthumously awarded Trinidad and Tobago's highest honour, the Trinity Cross. Several books have been written about him and he has two Blue Plaques, one erected on his former home in Nelson and an English Heritage Blue Plaque on his former address in Earls Court, London. Sources: Cricket and I by Learie Constantine and CLR James Connie: The Life of Learie Constantine by Henry Pearson Learie Constantine by Gerald Howat Learie Constantine by Peter Mason https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learie_Constantine https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/learie-constantine/#:~:text=CONSTANTINE%2C%20Sir%20Learie%20(1901%2D1971)&text=Britain's%20first%20black%20peer%2C%20Sir,%2C%20Colour%20Bar%20(1954). https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/constantine-learie-1901-1971/ https://www.bigredbook.info/learie_constantine.html https://www.neversuchinnocence.com/learie-constantine-second-world-war https://rylandscollections.com/2020/10/12/learie-constantine/ https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/jun/30/learie-constantine-and-a-thread-that-runs-through-west-indies-cricket-history https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/sep/03/west-indies-cricketer-accused-hotel-of-racial-discrimination-archive-1943

The story of the abolitionist movement in Britain often focuses on prominent white advocates like William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson. However, central to this movement were Black abolitionists, many of whom were formerly enslaved. At the forefront was a group known as the Sons of Africa, who campaigned tirelessly to end the transatlantic slave trade and improve the lives of people of African descent. Formed in the late 18th century in London, this group included prominent figures like Olaudah Equiano and Ottobah Cugoano, who advocated for freedom, justice, and equality through writings, speeches, and political lobbying. The Sons of Africa played a significant role in shaping British abolitionism, influencing laws and public opinion, and taking part in landmark cases and legislative efforts such as the 1788 Slave Act and the infamous Zong massacre case. The Sons of Africa were a pioneering collective of Black men in Britain, many of whom had endured enslavement firsthand before securing their freedom. Among their leaders, Equiano and Cugoano were vocal and influential figures who used their writings and public advocacy to reveal the brutalities of slavery. They worked to change British public opinion on the transatlantic slave trade, harnessing their own stories and moral authority to challenge racial discrimination and human rights abuses. Through their activism, the Sons of Africa played a central role in the fight for abolition, providing a rare and powerful voice for Black agency in a predominantly white movement. The group operated at a time when racist ideologies were deeply entrenched in British society, and Black individuals were widely seen as inferior. These men, who had lived through the horrors of slavery, offered authentic perspectives that could not be dismissed or ignored. By addressing Parliament, corresponding with powerful abolitionists, and reaching out to the public through writings and lectures, the Sons of Africa created an enduring impact that contributed to the passage of critical legislation and helped shift the social and political landscape in Britain. The group was led by Olaudah Equiano and Ottobah Cugoano, members included Jasper Goree, George Robert Mandeville, James Bailey, William Stevens, Joseph Almaze, Boughwa Gegansmel, Cojoh Ammere, and several others. One of the most significant achievements of the Sons of Africa was their role in lobbying for the passage of the 1788 Slave Act, also known as the Dolben Act. In 1788, Olaudah Equiano personally lobbied the House of Commons in support of William Dolben’s bill, which aimed to regulate the horrific conditions on slave ships. This legislation proposed limits on the number of enslaved Africans who could be transported on each ship, based on the vessel’s tonnage. The act was the first British legislation to place any form of regulatory limit on the trade, highlighting the dangerous and inhumane overcrowding on slave ships. Equiano’s influence was crucial to this effort. Drawing from his own experience and the testimonies of others, he emphasised the suffering endured by enslaved Africans during the Middle Passage. The testimonies of Equiano and his peers forced British lawmakers to confront the conditions on slave ships, marking a pivotal shift in legislative attitudes. The Dolben Act, though limited in scope, set a precedent for future reforms and demonstrated that the voices of Black abolitionists could indeed impact British law. The Sons of Africa were also involved in two critical legal battles that influenced British views on slavery: the case of the Zong massacre and the Somerset case. The Zong Massacre Case In 1781, the crew of the British slave ship Zong threw 132 enslaved Africans overboard to conserve dwindling supplies and later sought insurance compensation for “lost cargo.” The massacre came to public attention in 1783, sparking outrage among abolitionists. While the British courts ultimately framed the case as a dispute over insurance claims, the public outcry was undeniable. Equiano and other Sons of Africa members were active in keeping this story in the public eye, speaking out against the treatment of enslaved Africans as property and demanding accountability. The case became a focal point for the abolitionist movement and underscored the moral imperative of ending slavery. The Somerset Case The 1772 Somerset v. Stewart case was another landmark event, involving an enslaved man named James Somerset who sought his freedom after being brought to England. The Sons of Africa, alongside other abolitionists, supported Somerset’s fight, which resulted in a ruling by Lord Mansfield that slavery had no basis in English law. While this decision did not abolish slavery outright, it discouraged the practice within Britain, creating hope for further legal reforms. These cases were turning points, reinforcing public awareness of the inhumanity of slavery and shifting legal perspectives on the rights of enslaved people. The involvement of the Sons of Africa in these cases highlighted their dedication to challenging slavery through all available means, whether moral, legal, or political. Beyond their efforts in Parliament and the courts, the Sons of Africa were also active on the anti-slavery lecture circuit, particularly in northern England, where they engaged working-class audiences in industrial towns. Northern England had a strong abolitionist sentiment, fuelled by economic links to the cotton industry, which relied on slave-produced raw materials. Equiano and other members of the Sons of Africa travelled through towns like Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, delivering speeches and lectures to build grassroots support for abolition. This speaking circuit was crucial for building widespread support among people who were often disconnected from the political activities in London. Through direct engagement, the Sons of Africa influenced the views of working-class audiences who might otherwise have had little exposure to the abolitionist message. This grassroots advocacy contributed to a groundswell of public opinion that would ultimately pressure Parliament to act. The Sons of Africa left a lasting legacy, both within Britain and beyond. Their courageous and principled fight against slavery and racial injustice established a powerful example of Black-led activism and demonstrated the effectiveness of strategic, moral, and legislative advocacy. The group’s efforts culminated in the passing of the Slave Trade Act of 1807, which banned British involvement in the transatlantic slave trade, and later influenced the complete abolition of slavery across the British Empire in 1833. The writings of Equiano and Cugoano continue to be studied as seminal works in the history of abolitionism and the literature of resistance. By speaking truth to power, these men made invaluable contributions to the cause of human rights, bringing the experiences and voices of Black people to the forefront of British abolitionism. The Sons of Africa were more than just a footnote in the history of abolition. Their activism, writings, and legal efforts challenged the foundations of the British slave trade and changed the course of history. By lobbying for legislation, participating in landmark legal cases, and speaking directly to the public, they used every avenue available to advocate for an end to slavery. Their work in support of the 1788 Slave Act, their involvement in cases like the Zong massacre and the Somerset case, and their dedication to raising awareness through public lectures in northern England were all instrumental in the abolitionist movement. Today, the legacy of the Sons of Africa serves as a reminder of the power of Black agency, resilience, and leadership in the ongoing fight for justice and equality. Their courage and commitment laid the groundwork for future generations to continue challenging systems of oppression and seeking a more just society for all.

Black History Month UK 2021 'Black to the Past' campaign - African Romans in Britain By its very design, the Roman Empire was an extremely diverse and multicultural place. Through trade, logistical or military movements, civilian migrations both voluntary and forced, people travelled within an Empire that ruled one-fifth of the ancient global population. Burial remains and tomb inscriptions demonstrate the diversity of Roman Britain. Inscriptions carved into stone to commemorate the dead on tombs, or to record who set up an altar to the gods, show that people came not only from Italy, but also from Gaul, North Africa and Spain; in the later Roman period new troops were recruited from Germany and even from beyond the frontiers of the Empire. The Roman conquest of Britain led to the migration of many soldiers and administrators, merchants and also women and children. Evidence suggests that, over time, these newcomers and the local population intermarried, and that the populations in major urban and military sites were very diverse. In 1901, a group of Roman graves were found by workmen cutting a line for a new railway on Sycamore Terrace. The area was once part of a sprawling cemetery on the fringes of Eboracum, Roman York. One of the richest graves found, was a high status Christian woman buried in a stone coffin with luxury goods including jewellery made from elephant ivory and Whitby jet. For over a century, the female nicknamed the 'Ivory Bangle Lady' was interpreted as an important Christian woman of Roman York, but little consideration was given to her origins. In 2010, a team of archaeologists from the University of Reading re-examined her skeletal remains and their findings challenged assumptions about the diversity of the ancient Roman city. Hella Eckhardt, senior lecturer at the department of archaeology at Reading University, said. "In the case of York, the Roman population may have had more diverse origins than the city has now." Using ancestry assessment, they found that the skeleton of the Ivory Bangle Lady was a young woman aged between 18-23 years with a mixture of 'black' and 'white' ancestral traits. Isotope analysis revealed that she had spent her early years in a warmer climate, while her skull shape suggested she had some North African ancestry. Taken together with the evidence of an unusual burial rite and grave goods, the evidence all pointed to a high-status incomer to Roman York. It seems likely that the Ivory Bangle Lady was of North African descent and may have migrated to York from somewhere warmer, possibly the Mediterranean. The Ivory Bangle Lady had one of the richest graves and was buried with bracelets, earrings, pendants, beads, a blue glass jug, likely to contain cosmetics or perfume, and a glass mirror. The most famous object was a rectangular openwork mount of bone, possibly from an unrecorded wooden casket, which read "Hail, sister, may you live in God," indicating Christian beliefs. All suggesting that she held a high-ranking position within Roman York. Dr Hella Eckardt, Senior Lecturer at the University of Reading, said: "Multi-cultural Britain is not just a phenomenon of more modern times. Analysis of the ‘Ivory Bangle Lady' and others like her, contradicts common popular assumptions about the make up of Roman-British populations as well as the view that African immigrants in Roman Britain were of low status, male and likely to have been slaves." The skeleton and the grave goods of the Ivory Bangle Lady are on display in the Yorkshire Museum.

Black History Month UK 2021 'Black to the Past' campaign - African Tudors & Stuarts in Britain John Blanke is probably the most well-known African from Tudor England. He has been traced through both written records and pictorial images of him at a Tudor event. He was a royal trumpeter in the courts of Henry VII and Henry VII, making his first recorded appearance there in 1507. Not much is known about his early life, but research suggests he came to England as part of the entourage of Katherine Aragon in 1501. She came to England to marry Prince Arthur, eldest son and heir of Henry VII, and older brother to Henry VIII. Many Africans were living in Portugal during the period of 1400 to 1500. In the city of Seville, they represented 7.5% of the population, so much so that the city was described as 'a giant chessboard containing an equal number of white and black chessman.' So it's not surprising that Katherine's royal court included an African trumpeter. It's likely that Catalina of Motril, a Muslim Moor and one of Katherine's servants of the bedchamber, was also part of her entourage. John Blanke first appears in records when receiving a payment from Henry VII in December 1507. He was one of eight royal trumpeters under the leadership of Peter de Casa Nova between 1507 and 1512. The entry shows that he was paid 20 shillings (or 8d. in old pence) each day for his service in November. Monthly payments for the same amount continued throughout the following year. Sometime after the death of Prince Arthur in April 1502, he joined the household of King Henry VII. Katherine, deprived of her dowry and short of money, was reported to have complained that she couldn't even afford to pay her servants. Perhaps John was forced to find employment elsewhere. John Blanke was part of a long medieval and renaissance tradition of African musicians serving at European royal courts. In the 12th century, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI had African trumpeters in his entourage. While in the 16th century James IV of Scotland employed a drummer who was a Muslim Moor. Historic Royal Palaces website When King Henry VII died in April 1509, Blanke was one of the trumpeters who played at his funeral, dressed in black. He would have had an important part to play in the ceremonies that followed, accompanying the procession from Richmond to burial in Westminister Abbey. A month later, he played at the coronation of Henry VIII on 24th June, dressed in scarlet livery. A colour reserved for higher-ranking royal servants. Written evidence of John Blanke is found again when he petitioned King Henry VIII for a promotion and pay rise after the death of a fellow trumpeter. Blanke was well paid for those times, and his wage of 8d. (old pence) each day was the equivalent of a skilled craftsman. In addition to his wages, he also received room and board. On occasions that these were not required, he could have claimed an additional allowance called 'boardwage.' Later, in 1526, it was decreed that the royal trumpeters' 'boardwage' was to be 4d. each day. However, ambitious John wanted more, and after the death of a more senior trumpeter called Domynck Justinian, he petitioned the King for his former colleague's position. He argued that his wages were not sufficient to serve the King properly 'as other your trumpets do' and noted that he intended to serve the King for the rest of his life. The petition was a success, and his wages were doubled to 16d (old pence) each day. The petition still survives today and is now held in the National Archives. In February 1511, Henry VIII held a two-day grand jousting tournament in Westminster to celebrate the birth of his short-lived first son, Prince Henry, who was born on new year's day. It was a huge event, comparable to the World Cup or Olympics in modern times, and of course, the royal trumpeters were paid highly - more than ten times their daily wage. The event was recorded on the 60 foot long Westminster tournament roll of 1511 which is now held by the College of Arms. John Blanke is depicted twice on the roll, as one of the six trumpeters on horseback in the royal retinue. All six trumpeters wear yellow and grey livery and bear a trumpet decorated with the royal arms; Blanke alone wears a brown and yellow turban, while the others are bare-headed with longish hair. He appears a second time in the roll, wearing a green and gold head covering. The last time he appears in records is in 1512 when he got married because Henry VIII gave him a wedding present. On the 14th January 1512, Henry VIII issued a warrant to the great wardrobe (the part of the royal household that clothed the King) to deliver to 'a gown of violet cloth, and also a bonnet and hat' as a gift 'against his marriage.' This is the last time we hear of John Blanke in records as he doesn't appear in the list of royal trumpeters four years later in 1514. We don't know who he married, but it's most likely that she was an English woman and that the ceremony took place in St Nicholas' Church in what is now Deptford. England was still a Roman Catholic country in 1512, so he must have converted to Christianity if he wasn't a Christian already. "We know that there were black Christians in Renaissance London. For example, burial records from 1618 show that Anne Vause, 'a black-more', was buried at St Botolph's Church, Aldgate. Coincidentally, Anne's husband Anthonie was also a trumpeter." Historic Royal Palaces website There is no trace of John Blanke after 1512 in royal records after then. Some historians have suggested that he may have found work in another royal court that paid more or changed occupation - at the time, it was not uncommon for court servants to marry a widow and take on her husband's former trade in London. Another theory is that he may have died in battle, fighting in Scotland or France. Whatever the reason. Blanke is remarkable in that he demolishes the view that Africans living in England at the time were slaves. "Too often, people assume that all Africans in Europe at this time were enslaved. We are bombarded with images of enslaved Africans, often dating to later periods or other countries, most recently in the film 12 Years a Slave and the TV series Roots. But people at the time made other assumptions. For example, in 1572, Juan Gelofe, a 40-year-old African man enslaved in a Mexican silver mine, told an English sailor named William Collins that England "must be a good country as there were no slaves there." Collins replied, "It was true that they were all freemen in England." Historian and Author, Dr Miranda Kaufmann John Blanke is currently the only identifiable African Tudor portrayed in 16th-century British art. He is now featured in teaching resources, including BBC programmes for seven- to eleven-year-olds and an optional module of GCSE History (Migrants to Britain C.1250 to Present). He's also included in the National Archives' guide to black history. His image was the most requested for reproduction of those held by the College of Arms. From 2003 he featured in the National Trust's annual Black History Month exhibition at Sutton House, Hackney.

Angela M (CEO of IBHM-UK) explains the origins of Black History Month UK and how to celebrate it. Black History Month UK 2020 October 1st marks the start of Black History Month UK, observed since 1987, it is a time to celebrate the achievements and contributions of African and Caribbean heritage peoples to UK culture and history. What is Black History Month UK? Black History Month UK was the brainchild of Akyaaba Addai-Sebo, a special projects officer at the Greater London Council. He wanted to boost the self-esteem of Black British children and young adults by educating them on the achievements of Black people living in the UK. Taking inspiration from Black History Month (also known as African American History Month) in the United States. The first official event took place on 1st October 1987 at Country Hall. It has since evolved into a national movement that is observed throughout the UK. It is also recognised in other parts of the world during October in Ireland and the Netherlands. In the US, where Black History Month originated, the awareness month is held in February. It is also celebrated in Canada during the month of February, where it was officially recognised in 1995. Why is it celebrated at different times across the globe? After visiting America in the 1970s, Addai-Sebo created a British version of Black History Month in 1987, but they are not officially linked. In the United States, Black History Month takes place in February to coincide with the births of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln. Addai-Sebo choose to celebrate Black History Month UK in October because of the month's importance in the African calendar. More importantly, it was the start of the British academic year. Why do we celebrate Black History Month UK 2020? Did you know that there has been a Black presence in the UK since Roman Times? Or that there were Black Tudors, Stuarts and Georgians? Black History Month is our chance to celebrate these unsung heroes of Black British history whose contributions have for too long been ignored and forgotten. Black History Month provides you with the chance to find out more about Black Britain’s rich and varied long history dating back to antiquity times. It’s a time to celebrate the achievements and contributions of Black Britons who helped to shape the country amongst the Black British community and the widen UK population. It also provides us with a space to tackle racism heads-on by encouraging government, institutions and corporations to embrace and adopt equality and diversity policies. What is the theme of Black History Month UK 2020? 2020 is the year the world finally started talking about race and anti-black racism. The brutal murder of George Floyd in the United States by police generated shock waves across the globe and lead to thousands of people taking to the streets to demand an end to racism. Here in the UK, young activists took to the streets to demand an end to racial inequality in education, health and employment. Sparking important conversations over Britain’s colonial past and its role in the Atlantic Slave Trade within government, business and the media. This month we want to celebrate the inspiring modern Black Britons who first picked up the civil rights baton that has now metaphorically been passed onto today’s brave and inspiring young activists. Our theme for this October is ‘Non-Violent Civil Disobedience’ in which we’ll be taking a look back at the Black British activists of the 1960s and 1980s who fought to achieve racial equality in the UK. Shining a light on the Civil Rights activists behind the Bristol Bus Boycott and the Lewisham Mums against SUS laws who paved the way for today’s young Black British activists. Throughout the month we’ll be sharing a variety of profiles and features on the British Civil Rights pioneers of the 1960s and 1970s who paved the wave for today’s Black Britons and the wider UK immigrant community. Visit our website and any of our social media channels (Instagram, Twitter, and Youtube) or why not sign up for our monthly newsletter updates. How will it be commemorated in 2020? Black History Month is a great opportunity for people from all backgrounds to educate themselves on Black British history and the often-overlooked people who have made a difference to the country. Please check your local authority website for news on any exhibitions or events they’re holding in commemoration of Black History Month UK. Or the websites of your local museum or other local cultural institutions for any special events they may be running to mark the occasion. Alternatively, why not check out our Events Calendar or read our blog ’31 ways to celebrate Black History Month UK’ for ideas on how to celebrate UK’s Black History Month with your friends and family. Brands supporting Black History Month this year include The Black Farmer, Bumble, Gap UK, Instagram, Royal Mail and Sainsburys plc. TV and satellite channels supporting Black History Month this year include BBC, Sky, Channel Four, ITV, Britbox, BT Sport, and Together TV. To mark Black History Month and its continued commitment to giving diverse voices a platform in the UK, Spotify is shining a spotlight on the Black artists and talent who have made a difference in a very challenging 2020. Who is the International Black History Month UK (IBHM-UK) organisation? The International Black History Month UK (IBHM-UK) was created in June 2020 by a group of Black Britons with a passion for investigating and curating the hidden and forgotten stories of Britain’s black past. We’re committed to raising the profile of the month amongst the African, Caribbean and Black British community in the UK. As one of our young volunteer interns explains: “Neither my primary or secondary schools celebrated Black History Month UK and I had to learn about UK Black History myself. So, I think it’s important that an organisation like this exists to fill the gaps in knowledge that many people in the UK’s African and Caribbean community may have about Britain’s black past. Our community is not a monolith, and we all have different lived experiences. BHMUK allows us all to reflect and celebrate on all the different aspects of British Black history from finding out about awe inspiring individuals like Dr Harold Moody and John Blanke to the legislative changes in UK law championed by the Windrush generation." For too long, Black History Month UK has lacked direction and focus. We decided to step into that space to ensure that this important month has a clear message and theme. Our CEO, Angela says: “I have a young son who was tasked with choosing a notable Black Briton for a school assignment and I was shocked to learn that the only resources available was a listings website with poorly researched articles and filled to the brim with job adverts. We set up this organisation to ensure that quality information and free resources are available to everyone who wants to learn about UK Black History. And more importantly, that the stories of Black Britons are told in an authentic voice that belongs to us and not someone masquerading as one of us!“ We are a local community group that provides free resources on UK Black History and hope to run themed Black UK history events in 2021 and beyond.

Windrush Month 2024 'Celebrating the Caribbean pioneers of the 1940s & 1950s' - exploring the lives and stories of the the early Caribbean people who came to Britain after the 2WW. Eustace Edward Ricardo (ER) Braithwaite was born in Queenstown, Georgetown in the then British colony of British Guiana (now Guyana). He was one of five children. Both his parents were graduates of Oxford University and he described growing up surrounded by education, achievement, and parental pride. Braithwaite was a studious child who attended the prestigious Queen’s College in Guyana (a secondary school modelled on the English public school) and, in 1940, earned a BSc in Physics from The City College of New York. He then moved to Britain to study and suddenly saw the English in a new light. “I couldn’t believe my eyes. White porters in the college. White waiters in the dining halls. Barmen. Servants. In far off British Guiana they were served,” said Braithwaite. “All the whites in British Guiana were in managerial positions. I never associated poverty with white persons.” Then Nazi Germany invaded Poland, and England declared war. Braithwaite and his fellow students heard a new word on the radio “blitzkrieg.” London and other British cities were being heavily bombed, and Britain desperately needed manpower to help defend their cities. So, in October 1939, they lifted their ‘colour bar’ in the military and the RAF began recruiting Black aircrew. Braithwaite initially joined the Cambridge University Air Squadron and learned how to fly, then signed on as an aircrew cadet with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1940. He described his time in the RAF as one where he didn’t experience any discrimination based on his skin colour nor ethnicity. “I was at one with everything. A part of everything. Black and different as blonde was different from red. The colour of my skin was no weight on my shoulders. I was proud in my skin, not defensive of it. There was a war on, and I was a warrior. War drew the people together.” After the war, Braithwaite resumed his studies and graduated from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge in 1949 where he earned a master’s degree in physics. But despite his qualifications and experience – Braithwaite was a Spitfire pilot and had graduated top five in his class at Cambridge – he couldn’t find work as an engineer. Nothing prepared him for the brick wall of institutionalised racism he faced. His credentials got him in the door. But once a potential employer saw his skin colour, they made excuses. One man chatted with Braithwaite about his background, his time in the RAF, and his research at Cambridge. Braithwaite dared to hope. [1] Then, “Mr Braithwaite, I’m sure my colleagues would wish me to say that we are deeply impressed with your qualifications and your obvious abilities. Were the circumstances different we would be only too happy to appoint you a member of our staff. But we have a problem. All our employees are British, and we would face the reality of their almost certain reluctance to work with and perhaps under a person of colour…” [1] He experienced that scenario over and over again for nine months. Finally, after his umpteenth rejection, he found himself sitting on a park bench contemplating his future when an old man sat down next to him. He started feeding the ducks and mumbling. Braithwaite ignored him but the old man turned to him and said, ‘how people could be hurt by other people and things, but mostly themselves, and that hatred solved nothing.’ [1] Braithwaite lost it and replied “Look, why don’t you shut up? You white people are all the same. All this philosophical drivel has no meaning because, in fact, you are white and when you look out on the world you see it in a certain way. For Black people like me it has to be different…” [1] They then fell into a conversation in which, a despondent and almost defeated Braithwaite told him of his difficulties in finding work. Finally, the old man said, ‘Why don’t you try something else? A man like you, with your educational background, shouldn’t think that physics is the end of the world,” and told Braithwaite that London City Council was desperate for teachers, that they’d welcome someone with his credentials. [1] Braithwaite called the council the next day and they offered him a teaching job immediately. Braithwaite reluctantly accepted the job as a schoolteacher at St George-in-the-East Central School (now the Mulberry House apartments) in the Wapping area of East End of London. “Making plans on the half-realized dream of achievement as a physicist. Dreaming. Then the bitterness of seeing the dream whittled away, bit by bit, day by day, into weeks and months, until the only place on the whole arid horizon was a mangy schoolhouse beside a bomb-racked, rotting graveyard, and a smelly classroom with forty-six foul-mouthed youngsters. White, English youngsters.” His teaching career formed the basis of his autobiographical novel ‘To Sir With Love (1959),’ which won an Anisfield-Wolf Book Award. It was later adapted into the sentimental 1967 movie of the same name starring Sidney Poitier. Although the movie was a box-office success, Braithwaite hated it. In the movie, Sidney Poitier played the well-educated, middle-class graduate forced to deal with casual racism, violence and antisocial behaviour by a group of disadvantaged pupils. Hardest to bear was the self-hatred the racism brought out in him and the low expectations of colleagues for their charges. [2] While in contrast, the Braithwaite’s book was a gritty and unsentimental account of how he gradually turned his class around through a mix of affection and respect. It also revealed his love affair with a fellow teacher – controversial at the time because the other teacher was white. Braithwaite criticised the movie adaptation for downplaying the love affair. [2] “I detest the movie from the bottom of my heart,” he said in 2007. “I don’t like it because the movie is about the classroom, while my book is about my life.” The book also contrasted his experience of race relations in Britain with those in the US, where he studied before joining the RAF. He wrote: “The rest of the world in general and Britain in particular are prone to point an angrily critical finger at American intolerance, forgetting that in its short history as a nation it has granted to its Negro citizens more opportunities for advancement and betterment, per capita, than any other nation in the world with an indigent Negro population.” [2] To Sir, With Love has been hailed as a seminal work for immigrants from the colonies to postwar Britain. In an introduction, Caryl Phillips wrote: “The author is keen for us to understand that the Ricky Braithwaites of this world cannot, by themselves, uproot prejudice, but they can point to its existence. And this, after all, is the beginning of change; one must first identity the location of the problem before one can set about addressing it.” [2] In 1958, after nine years of teaching, Braithwaite turned to social work. He founded foster homes for ethnic minority children for the London City Council and worked as a welfare consultant for immigrant families from the Caribbean. That work inspired his second book, Paid Servant: A Report About Welfare Work in London published in 1962. Braithwaite’s writings in both books explore his challenges as an educated Black man in a society with few places for such individuals. [3] After social work, he moved to Paris in 1960 to work for the World Veterans Foundation as a human rights officer. In 1962, he transitioned into a diplomatic career, after the United Nations appointed him as a lecturer and education consultant to UNESCO in Paris. Five years later, he became Guyana's Permanent Representative to the United Nations in New York from 1967 to 1969. He was elected to the presidency of the United Nations Council for South West Africa in 1968. Later, he served as Guyana’s ambassador to Venezuela. In the 1960s, European colonies in Africa gained independence, and there was increasing pressure on South Africa to do the same with Namibia, which was then called South West Africa. When the International Court of Justice dismissed a complaint in 1966 from Ethiopia and Liberia about South Africa's continued presence in the territory, the UN General Assembly took over responsibility for Namibia and established a governing council for it. In response to international pressure, South Africa attempted to legitimize its control of Namibia by creating a commission to administer the territory under apartheid. Braithwaite was appointed as the president of the UN governing council and heard firsthand accounts of the suffering caused by apartheid from witnesses. In 1973, a friend in Guyana sent him a clipping from the South African Official Gazette announcing that the ban on Braithwaite’s ‘To Sir, With Love’ book had been lifted. On an impulse, he called the South African Consul General and asked if this meant he could travel South Africa. To his surprise, he was granted a visa to the country as an ‘honorary white’ which gave him far more privileges than allowed for the Indigenous Black South African majority population. A situation which he found detestable. During his six weeks in South Africa, he recorded his experiences and the horrors he witnessed in his third book, Honorary White (1975). In the early 1970s, Braithwaite retired from diplomatic work to move into academia. He taught English Studies at the universities of New York, Florida State and the renowned HBCU Howard University in Washington, where he also served as writer-in-residence. His last academic appointment was as a visiting professor at Manchester Community College in Connecticut during the 2005-6 academic year. He also served as the college’s commencement speaker for that year and received honorary degrees. Throughout his incredible life, Braithwaite continued to write novels and short stories well into his 90s! His other books included A Kind of Homecoming (1962), about searching for his ancestral roots; Choice of Straws (1965), a mystery novel set in London; and his first children’s book, Billingsly: The Bear With the Crinkled Ear (2014). In his book Reluctant Strangers (1972), which records the increasingly contentious conversation between Braithwaite and a white American businessman, who grudgingly took the last seat on a train next to him. As their conversation progresses, the American becomes more and more astonished by Braithwaite’s life story. “Evidently you’re an exceptional man,” he tells Braithwaite. “Funny thing is that inside myself I don’t feel exceptional. There are lots like me, strong in themselves, feeling they can do things. But perhaps they’re not as lucky as me. They’re denied the freedom, the opportunity and the right to give expression to what they feel.” Braithwaite was a remarkable man. He was a Black man that grew up under British colonial rule, he endured the prejudice and institutional racism of post-war Britain, but through his sheer tenacity he was able to live a long and varied life. He was a teacher, diplomat, professor, and social worker, all whilst writing 22 books – memoirs, novels, and academic texts. When Braithwaite turned 100 in 2012, he went back to his native Guyana to serve as the patron of the Inter-Guiana Cultural Festival. He was also awarded the Cacique Crown of Honour by the then President Donald Ramotar. The following year, at 101, Braithwaite returned to Britain to attend the first live performance of the stage version of To Sir, With Love. Eustace Edward Ricardo Braithwaite died on December 12, 2016, at the Adventist Healthcare Shady Grove Medical Centre in Rockville, Maryland at the age of one hundred and four. Source: https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/dec/14/to-sir-with-love-author-er-braithwaite-dies-aged-104 (2) https://laterbloomer.com/e-r-braithwaite/ (1) ‘To Sir with Love Author’ E.R Braithwaite is a Special Person - Kaieteur News (kaieteurnewsonline.com) Eustace Edward Ricardo Braithwaite (1912–2016) • (blackpast.org) (3) https://youtu.be/H5yWCk7EzBM?feature=shared E. R. Braithwaite: To Sir, With Love (1959) - Literary London Society

Black History Month UK 2022 'Sharing Journeys' campaign - In the first of our history in the making articles, we'll be exploring the life and career of the cabinet minister, Kemi Badenoch. Kemi Badenoch was born Olukemi Olufunto Adegoke on 2 January 1980 in Wimbledon, London, to Femi and Deyi Adegoke. Her father was a GP and her mother a professor of physiology. She spent her childhood growing up on both sides of the Atlantic where her psychology professor mother had lecturing jobs. Life became increasingly hard for her family when Nigeria was thrown into political chaos after a military coup in the early eighties. The country was racked with financial ruin and severe human rights abuses. The Nigerian naira was devalued and the country was temporarily suspended from the Commonwealth for executing nine environmentalists including Nobel prize nominee Ken Saro-Wiwa. Living in such dire conditions, Badenoch’s father took the difficult decision to send her to the UK. She recalls: that Nigeria’s currency had suddenly become worth 10% of what it had been and “my Dad [had to] spend several months’ pay on my ticket. We went to the travel agent with all his savings stuffed in a plastic carrier bag. He had £100 left when he’d paid for my ticket, and he gave it to me to take to England. So that’s all I had when I arrived.” “But I was so excited. When I saw my British passport it was like Willy Wonka’s golden ticket. It was amazing, a very special privilege to be a citizen of this country. Many people use citizenship as an international travel document, but to me it was much more than that. I think of this country with affection, feeling, loyalty. Its values make it special.” At the age of 16, Badenoch returned to the UK to stay with her mum’s best friend in Wimbledon. Whilst studying for her A Levels at Phoenix College in south London she worked at Mcdonald’s and other jobs. She told the Times of her time at McDonald’s: “You would have people from college who would turn up and laugh at me because I was there with my hat and badge and I didn’t have any stars. But it was what I had to do. I didn’t have money. My parents weren’t here and I was living with family friends. So I had a roof over my head, but I needed to earn to live. There’s dignity that you just get from working and earning your own money.” After graduating from Sussex University with a degree in computer systems engineering, she worked for Logica, claiming she was “once the only woman on a building site with 300 men!” She then moved on to work for the Royal Bank of Scotland as a system analyst before pursuing a career in banking. She became an associate director at the private bank Coutts from 2006 to 2013. Developing an interest in law and politics, she began studying law at Birbeck, University of London and completed her LLB in 2009. She then took the tentative steps to move into politics while working as a director of the digital department at the influential right-wing magazine The Spectator. In 2015, she became a member of the National Assembly, going on to retain her seat in the Assembly in the 2016 election. Badenoch joined the Conservative party in 2005 and spent several years trying to get elected to Parliament. A year after being elected to the National Assembly, she was shortlisted by the Conservative Party for a marginal seat in the Hampstead and Kilburn consistency in the 2017 general election. She was unsuccessful but was ultimately selected as a Conservative candidate for Saffron Waldon, a safe seat for the Tories, which she held with 37,629 votes and a majority of 24,966. In her maiden speech as an MP on 19 July, she described the vote for Brexit as “the greatest vote of confidence in the project of the United Kingdom” and cited her personal heroes as Conservative politicians Winston Churchill, Airey Neave, and Margaret Thatcher. In July 2019, Badenoch joined Boris Johnson’s government as a junior minister in the role of Parliamentary Under Secretary of State (Minister for Children and Families). She bounced around several junior ministerial roles before being promoted to Minister of State for Equalities; and appointed Minister of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government. Within days of her appointments, the latter title was renamed “Minister of State for Levelling Up Communities.” Her tenure as Minister of State for Equalities was sometimes mired in controversy. During a debate in the House of Commons in April 2021, Badenoch criticised the Labour Party’s response to a report compiled by the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities which declared Britain was not institutionally racist. Labour had described the report as “cherry-picking of data”, while the party’s former frontbench MP Dawn Butler claimed the report was “gaslighting on a national scale”, describing those who put it together as “racial gatekeepers”. Badenoch accused Labour of "wilful misrepresentations" over the report and responded to Butler's comments by stating "It is wrong to accuse those who argue for a different approach as being racism deniers or race traitors. It's even more irresponsible, dangerously so, to call ethnic minority people racial slurs like Uncle Toms, coconuts, house slaves or house negroes for daring to think differently." In a Black History Month debate in the House of Commons in October 2020, she reiterated the government's opposition to primary and secondary schools teaching white privilege and similar "elements of critical race theory" as uncontested facts. ConservativeHome readers voted Badenoch's speech on critical race theory 2020 'speech of the year', in which she said that any school that teaches "elements of political race theory as fact, or which promotes partisan political views such as defunding the police without offering a balanced treatment of opposing views, is breaking the law". Badenoch has been dubbed the UK’s Candace Owens by her critics on the left because of her controversial opinions on race and equality. Shortly after her appointment as Minister of State for Equalities 2021, Vice News said they had received leaked audio from 2018 in which Badenoch mocked gay marriage, referred to trans women as "men" and used the term transsexual which is considered offensive by some trans people. During the comments reportedly made in her Commons office in 2018, Ms Badenoch is alleged to have said: “Now it’s not just about being free to marry who you want, you now want to have men using women’s bathrooms.” Deputy Labour leader Angela Rayner labelled the remarks “disgusting” and LGBT charity Stonewall said the comments were “hurtful and harmful”. In response, a government spokesperson said: “The 2018 comment has been taken out of context, with the Minister making a clear point about striking the balance for equality and fairness when there are multiple and often competing demands between different groups. It should not be used to misrepresent her views.” Tipped as a possible contender in the run-up for the Conservative Party leadership election in 2019. She instead supported the campaign of Michael Gove. Twenty-five months later, after the resignation of Prime Minister Boris Johnson, she threw her hat into the ring. Ranked as an outsider, she campaigned on the “anti-woke” platform and small government pitch becoming the new darling of the right of the Tory party. "I came to this country aged 16 and now I am standing for prime minister - isn't that amazing? I was born in this country but I didn't grow up here… And I don't understand why people want to ignore all of the good things and only focus on the bad things and use the bad things to tell the story." According to The Sunday Times, Badenoch entered the race as “a relatively unknown minister for local government” but “within a week emerged as the insurgent candidate to become Britain’s next prime minister". On 16 July, a ConservativeHome survey found Badenoch to be the favoured candidate of members by a double-digit margin. She was eliminated in the fourth round of voting, winning 59 votes in that round, the fewest of the four remaining candidates. On the 6th September, Kemi Badenoch was appointed Secretary of State for International Trade and President of the Board of Trade. It is her first cabinet post and she’s tipped to take another shot at the top job when the time comes. “Running doesn’t have to mean winning,” said one admiring MP, who backed Liz Truss for the leader. “Running means getting ready to win later.” Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemi_Badenoch https://www.standard.co.uk/insider/who-is-kemi-badenoch-tory-leadership-candidate-b1012442.html https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-62176280 https://www.politico.eu/article/kemi-badenoch-british-pm-tory-race/

We're challenging everyone to celebrate Black History Month UK in a different way each day of October! International Black History Month is commemorated across the world in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, Northern Ireland and the Netherlands. We’ve been celebrating it in the United Kingdom since the 1980s and we’re challenging all our supporters to celebrate Black British History in a different way each day of October. Here are 31 ways you can celebrate #BlackHistoryMonthUK this month: Spread the word on our campaign theme campaign theme of 'Breaking Barriers to Publishing Futures' by sharing any of our campaign videos or making and sharing a post on your social media platform Support a Black-owned business throughout the month of October Visit the Black Cultural archives in Brixton, London Donate or Sign up to a Black British organisation or charity Host a Black movie night (or marathon if you have the stamina!) Spend time with a Black elder in your community Read a Black British author Host a Black British History Quiz (why not try one of our quizzes) Support Black British media and press (check out our Black British movies and TV shows recommendations) Sign up to mentor a vulnerable Black child in your community Subscribe to a Black British social media influencer Explore Black History in your local area for landmarks and plaques and don't forget to snap a picture and tag us @bhmuk_landmarks on Instagram Decorate your home in Black art Explore Black British archives - why not explore local archives or online resources like the National Archive, George Padmore Institute, Black Cultural Archives collections and FHALMA - The Huntley Archives. Read the biography of an influential Black figure Schedule some me-time to recharge your batteries if you’re dealing with casual racism at work or any other environments Visit a Black exhibition in your local museum or library Host a Black History Month UK-themed dinner party Explore the rich cultures of Black Britain, from pre-colonial Black Britons and the Windrush generation to post-1980s migrants, by visiting events like the Nigerian Modernism Art exhibition. Suggest a Black author for your book club (check out our top reads for the month) Attend or host a Black culture event in your community Study the history of the Black and African diaspora across the globe Contribute a blog to a Black media outlet Try a new African or Caribbean recipe Book a Black History walking tour Donate blood Listen to a podcast by a Black Content provider Explore some Black British music from the past (you can start with our Spotify playlist!) Learn about an unsung Black British hero Register to vote Take on our #BHMFamilies challenge and don't forget to tag us @ibhmuk on Instagram

Black History Month UK 2023 'Before Windrush' - exploring the lives and stories of Black Britons who were living in the UK before the arrival of Empire Windrush in 1948. Princess Tsehai Selassie, was the youngest child of Menen Asfaw and Ras Tafari, who would later be known as Emperor Haile Selassie I. She was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on 13 October 1919. From age eight, she attended school in England and Switzerland, and during vacations travelled with her royal relatives to France and Germany, learning each country's language as well as English. Ethiopia, one of only two independent African nations (the other being Liberia) at the time, was invaded on 3 October 1935 by Fascist Italy under Mussolini. He wanted to boost his nation’s prestige which was wounded by its defeat to Ethiopia in the Battle of Adowa in 1896, which saved Ethiopia from Italian colonisation. The Italians committed countless atrocities on the independent African state. Poisonous gas, aerial bombardment, flame throwers, and concentration camps were all employed. They also imposed racial segregation and banned mixed marriage. When she was only 15, she gave an impassioned speech at the League of Nations on behalf of her besieged home nation of Ethiopia that had been invaded by Mussolini’s Fascist Italy. It garnered her international fame. (2) The Young Historians Project writes: Prince Tsehai was an irreverent woman who continued to speak on peace and use her status positively. She gave a speech for the Women’s Peace Crusade, and she was the only woman to speak at the Conference on African Peoples, Democracy and World Peace in 1939, held in London. As a sponsor in the creation of the Ethiopian Women’s Welfare Work Association (EWWWA), she worked to ensure the expansion and provision of health and welfare to Ethiopian people. The Princess and her family were sent to the safety of England by the Emperor after Ethiopia was invaded by Italy in 1935. After failing to get the League of Nations to condemn Italy and impose sanctions, he left Ethiopia to join his family in Bath, England where they lived in exile for five years (1936-1941). Princess Tsehai served as an interpreter for her mother and father, and she also became a spokesperson for her country, speaking before both large and small audiences about the plight of her people. At age 17, Princess Tsehai decided that she wanted to gain an education in nursing and build on the work she had started with the EWWWA. Her father gave his consent. Up until that time, no Ethiopian woman had ever trained as a nurse, and no woman of royal blood had ever worked at a profession. She would eventually return to Ethiopia to open medical centres. An interview was arranged for the Princess with the matron of London’s Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, where she began training as a resident student nurse in August 1936. (1) Following three years of training and attaining high marks in her final certificate in December 1939, she qualified as a state registered nurse for sick children. Footage showed the Princess smiling during her training on the ward, a figure treated with kindness by her fellow nurses. (2) Tsehai asked for no favors or special treatment, working alongside the other student nurses for the required 56 hours a week and earning a year's salary of £20. (1) On the 25 August 1939, she graduated as a State Registered Children's Nurse, then received permission to continue her studies at London's Guy's Hospital, with the intention of becoming a State Registered General Trained Nurse. (1) With the outbreak of WW2, the Probationers' School of Guy's had been moved to Pembury Hospital, some 29 miles southeast of London, and it was there that she enrolled in February 1940. The temporary housing for students was primitive, with no central heating and minimal sanitary facilities. The princess accepted a room with five other nurses, and when later offered an opportunity to move to a private nurses' home attached to the main hospital, turned it down. "I would not think of leaving the other nurses," she said. "I must be treated like everyone else." (1) After a year at Pembury, during which time the Nazis made their first mass air bombing on London, the Princess was transferred to Farnborough, another base hospital. In March 1941, she was transferred again, to Guy's Hospital in London. (1) She worked at Guy’s Hospital for two years, but on 5 May 1941, months before she was to take her final state examinations, the Princess was ordered by her father to return home with her mother. Three British Red Cross Nurses volunteered to accompany the royal party to help her continue her nursing work in Ethiopia. (2) On May 5, 1941, just months before she was to take her final state examinations, the Princess was ordered by her father to return home with her mother. Three British Red Cross Nurses volunteered to accompany the royal party to help her continue her nursing work in Ethiopia. The journey home took three months, during which time the liberation was completed. The Princess immediately went to work with the British Red Cross unit, setting up headquarters in the town of Dessie, which had suffered a massive air raid. They kept their London friends assessed of their progress through letters, one of which was published in the Nursing Mirror: We are running three large clinics: the largest is at Dessie, where we have an average of 150 patients. The second clinic is at Lake Haik, sixteen miles away—a most lovely place—and the third is at Bartie on the edge of the desert…. The Senior Political officer here at Dessie is quite sure the Unit has been the greatest thing done to help the people, for they were in grave distress. The Princess works in the morning very hard; we do the afternoons and evenings. She also reactivated the Ethiopian Women's Welfare Work Association, which had been shut down during the occupation. In April 1942, she married Lieutenant-General (later Brigadier-General) Lij Abiye Abebe, a former member of the emperor's imperial guard, whom she had met in England. Before leaving to live in the Welega Province, where Abiye was appointed governor there, she told an English journalist that she intended to carry on her work of establishing hospitals and medical service throughout her country. (1) Princess Tsehai did not have the opportunity to achieve her goals. Less than four months after her marriage, on August 17, 1942, she died from complications during childbirth in Lekempti, Ethiopia. Her baby did not survive. (1) Her patients and colleagues at GOSH would remember her fondly, providing glowing testimonials. Following her death, they led a memorial at the GOSH chapel. One matron reflected on her passion for nursing, "Practically her last words to me were: One day I shall open a children’s hospital: you must come and see it." (2) She was buried in the crypt of the Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery in Addis Ababa that had been built as the mausoleum church of Emperor Menelik II. Emperor Haile Selassie founded the Princess Tsehai Memorial Hospital in her memory, which also served as a nursing school and received funding from her friends in England. After the 1974 revolution, the hospital was renamed the Armed Forces General Hospital. Sources: https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/tsahai-haile-selassie-1919-1942 (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Tsehai https://museumandarchives.redcross.org.uk/objects/46898 http://www.rastafari-in-motion.org/princess-tsehai.html https://www.younghistoriansproject.org/early-women/princess-tsahai-selassie (2)

In August 1925, a Nigerian law student, Lapido Solanke, and a Sierra Leonean doctor, Herbert Bankole-Bright founded the West African Students’ Union (WASU) in London, England. It became a key political, social and cultural organisation for West Africans in Britain and the main African organisation in the UK for over thirty years. As early as 1923, Solanke had proposed that the Union of Students of African Descent (USAD), a Christian social organisation dominated by students from the West Indies (and which had grown out of the earlier West African and West Indian Christian Union, founded in 1917), should incorporate itself into the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). In 1925, Bankole-Bright of the NCBWA called on USAD, the Nigeria Progress Union, the African Progress Union and the Gold Coast Students' Association (GCSA) to join together to form a single organisation for West African students, inspired by the Indian Students' Union. Many students joined together to form WASU, and Solanke became the new organisation's secretary-general, while J. B. Danquah became its first president. J. E. Casely Hayford was the new grouping's first patron, a post he used to promote African nationalism. WASU’s founders were intentional about the organisation’s Pan-Africanism. Solanke visited and established chapters in several British West African colonies. The organisation soon became a hub for anti-racist and decolonial thinkers across the diaspora. In fact, one of WASU’s early donors was Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican political activist and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), who helped the organization obtain its first meetinghouse. African immigrants made up a very small minority in 1920s and 1930s London but faced considerable racial discrimination. Records from the Colonial Office suggest that there were around 125 African students at universities in Britain in 1929. By 1951, this number had risen dramatically to 2,300. Over its 30-year history, the WASU would move to a new location in Camden and open a second hostel on Chelsea Embankment due to increasing demand. White-owned establishments could legally refuse Black tenants, and so a key aim of WASU was "to provide and maintain a hostel for students of African descent." The Colonial Office were keen to take control of the project, and in 1929, whilst Solanke was away in West Africa raising funds for the hostel, they assembled a secret plan to build their own hostel. This became Aggrey House, which WASU exposed in their pamphlet The Truth About Aggrey House – An Exposure of the Government Plan to Control African Students in Great Britain. WASU opened its first hostel in March 1933 on Camden Road to provide accommodation to students and visitors of African descent. At a time when white-owned establishments could legally refuse Black tenants, the hostel was designed to be a “home away from home” for Africans in the diaspora. Known as “Africa House”, it gave members access to meals, a library, a reading room, a games room and space to welcome visitors. Solanke’s wife, Chief Opeolu Solanke-Ogunbiyi, became the matriarch of the hostel and was known as Mama WASU. Given that Africa House had a restaurant, Mama WASU solicited traditional African ingredients, things like egusi and ewuro, from her mother in Nigeria who sent them to her by passenger ship. Mama WASU hired an Irish cook for the hostel and taught her how to make traditional Nigerian dishes for the tenants. The WASU campaigned against racism in Britain and against colonialism and for independence in West Africa. Its activities included producing a journal, Wasu, and founding four hostels in London to provide lodgings and a ‘home from home’ for West African students and other African visitors at a time when as a result of racism and the ‘colour bar’ it was difficult or impossible for them to secure accommodation. In October 1934, the Colonial Office opened the rival hostel ‘Aggrey House’ in which political discussion could be monitored and discouraged. WASU opposed the scheme and formed an "Africa House Defence Committee", including Paul Robeson, who was awarded the title "Babasale of the Union", also gaining the support of the National Council for Civil Liberties, Negro Welfare Association, and League Against Imperialism. They encouraged students to boycott the hostel which remained unfilled until the Colonial Office offered WASU official recognition and financial support to run Africa House. In financial difficulties, WASU accepted the deal, and also accepted funding from organisations such as the United African Company. WASU also undertook some political campaigns within Britain. In 1929, it successfully stopped plans for an African village exhibition in Newcastle, which it felt would be exploitative. This campaign was taken up in Parliament by the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala. During the 1930s, WASU steadily expanded its work from student affairs and social movements to more formal political action. By 1930 WASU had persuaded a committee of Labour MPs to advocate for West African interests in Parliament. However, over time, the organisation’s position evolved from one of reforming colonial systems to openly opposing them. The group developed increasing links with communist groups, such as the League Against Imperialism (LAI) and the Negro Welfare Association, in particular in its campaigns against the colour bar and against the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. WASU was a leading voice against Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. The call for decolonisation intensified with World War II and the conscription of colonial subjects including many Africans, in the fight against Nazi Germany. WASU argued that England could not call on African colonial subjects to fight in its defence while denying them independence at home. In 1937, the Gold Coast Farmers Union wrote to Solanke, asking for his assistance in breaking the cocoa cartel of Cadbury's and the UAC. With Labour Party MPs Reginald Sorensen and Arthur Creech Jones, WASU campaigned in support of the 1938 Gold Coast cocoa hold-up, where small farmers attempted to pressurise the companies by disrupting their supplies. The following year in July 1938, with grants from various West African governments and British companies, WASU opened a new hostel, on Camden Square. This also solved the union's financial problems and enabled it to step up its campaigning activity. WASU became increasingly identified as an anti-colonial group, and it called for dominion status and universal suffrage for the West African colonies. Clement Attlee gave a speech to the union in which he suggested that the Atlantic Charter would apply to all nations, effectively endorsing WASU's aims, but Winston Churchill insisted that self-determination could only apply to European nations. In 1942, WASU made its first formal demand of the British Empire for the independence of its African colonies within five years of the end of the war. Harold Macmillan personally visited Africa House to argue the British government's case. And although their demand didn’t come to fruition, it planted a seed that inevitably contributed to African decolonization. Five years later in 1947, under vice-president Kwame Nkrumah, WASU called for an immediate decision on independence for the West African colonies and criticised the Labour government for its failure to deliver this. By the 1950s WASU’s influence began to decline as the fight for West African nationalism moved to the colonial territories. But It was one of the most important political organisations in Britain from the 1920s until the 1960s. It acted as a training ground for future West African politicians and from the late 1930s established branches and distributed its journal throughout West Africa and internationally. Through its branches and individual links, it was a major influence on the anti-colonial movements in Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and Gambia. Its members included Kwame Nkrumah, who became the first head of state of independent Ghana in 1957, Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya’s first president, and Hastings Banda, Malawi’s first president. WASU played a pivotal role in West Africa’s fight for independence from colonial Britain. That must and can not be forgotten. In 2012, University of Chichester history professor Hakim Adi created The WASU Project to revive the legacy of the movement. The WASU Project aims to document the history of West Africans in Britain, especially those who campaigned for an end to colonial rule and against all forms of racism during the 20th century, by presenting information, photos, and eventually a film about WASU. He told the Quartz Africa publication: “The dominant view of Black British history tends to exclude people from the African continent and focus on people from the Caribbean. There are a lot of things that people don’t know about the history of Africans in Britain, or in Africa for that matter,” he told Quartz Africa. “You don’t see documentaries or dramas on TV about it, and that’s problematic. In that sense, it’s not widely recognised but that’s a reflection of the way that history is presented.” On the 30th October 2020, the Nubian Jak Community Trust launched the Black Plaque project to celebrate notable Black Britons and organisations. A temporary Black Plaque was erected on Camden Road to commemorate Lapido Solanke and WASU. Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Students%27_Union#cite_note-9 https://qz.com/africa/1979035/how-west-african-students-in-london-fought-for-african-independence/ https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/west-african-students-union-wasu/ https://wasuproject.org.uk/ https://www.kofastudy.com/courses/ss2-government-3rd-term/lessons/some-key-nationalist-movements-and-nationalist-leaders-and-their-contributions-week-2/topic/west-african-student-union/